INTERNET BACKBONE – What up is that?

We are studying English and getting new knowledge about the topics to which the technical texts are dedicated

Compiled by Bartholomew I. Osegbe

To be able to understand what an Internet backbone is, let us remind what the Internet is and why we do need it.

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers, enabling users to share information along multiple channels. Typically, a computer that connects to the Internet can access information from a vast array of available servers and other computers by moving information from them to the computer’s local memory. The same connection allows the computer to send information to servers on the network; that information is in turn accessed and potentially modified by a variety of other interconnected computers. A majority of widely accessible information on the Internet consists of inter-linked hypertext documents and other resources of the World Wide Web (WWW). Computer users typically manage sent and received information with the help of web browsers. The end-users have no full control of all information. The service provider could block certain information from the end-users. Other software for users’ interface with computer networks includes specialized programs for electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and file sharing. Among further things the Internet has some common use in e-mail, the world wide web, remote access, collaboration, file sharing, streaming media, Internet telephony (VoIP).

In order to enable proper access to some of the Internet’s uses, the Internet backbone is necessary. The Internet backbone refers to the main “trunk” connections of the Inernet. It is made up of a large collection of interconnected data routes of high capacity and core routers that carry data across the countries, continents and oceans, across the whole world. The Internet backbone consists of many different networks. Usually, the term is used to describe large networks that interconnect with each other and may have individual ISPs (Internet service provider) as clients. For example, a local ISP may provide service to individual homes or businesses using the bandwidth that it purchases from another company with the backbone network. The conditions for applying to become an Internet backbone service provider should be made simple to encourage competition, which will eventually drive down cost, create jobs and provide excellent service. Backbone networks are usually commercial, academic, educational, or government owned, such as military networks.

Below the European ring from “An Atlas of Cyberspaces” is depicted – the Atlas was worked out by Martin Dodge, see also http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/m.dodge/cybergeography//martin/martin.html.

PS: The topic of the post was presented by Bartholomew I. Osegbe within the English lesson at the Faculty of electrical engineering.

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We are studying English and getting new knowledge about

the topics the technical texts are dedicated to.

Electronic dictionaries

Compiled by Galina Vitkova

Development of the modern IT has caused breakthrough in development and implementation of electronic dictionaries. Many well-known traditional companies have evolved an electronic version of their traditional dictionaries.

According to the Wikipedia an electronic dictionary is either a small handheld computer or a PDA (personal digital assistant). PDA is also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs commonly have colour screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones, web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi. Very often PDAs employ touch screen technology with a dictionary program. Electronic dictionaries are also programs that can be downloaded from the Internet or purchased on a CD-ROM or DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) and installed on a desktop computer or on a laptop one, The computer–installed dictionaries can frequently be consulted directly within any application that uses editable text. The term may be used in a broader sense to refer to the features of a machine-readable dictionary or spell checker.

Content. Some electronic dictionaries contain only corpora for a single language (monolingual), but others are bilingual dictionaries and translation dictionaries and may also include professional terms, thesauri, travel dictionaries, dictionaries of idioms and colloquialisms, a guide to pronunciation, a grammar reference, common phrases and collocations, and a dictionary of foreign loan words. Electronic dictionary databases, especially those included with software dictionaries, are usually extensive and can include up to 500,000 headwords and definitions. Manufacturers and developers of electronic dictionaries may offer native content from their own lexicographers, licensed data from print publications, or both.

Standard features. Handheld electronic dictionaries resemble miniature clamshell laptop computers, complete with full keyboards and LCD screens. Since they are intended to be fully portable, these dictionaries are battery-powered and made with durable casing material. Some of the features of both handheld dictionaries and software dictionaries involve stroke order animations, voice output, handwriting recognition, language-learning programs, a calculator, PDA–like organizer functions, encyclopedias, time zone and currency converters, and crossword puzzle solvers. Dictionaries that contain data for several languages customarily have a “jump” or “skip-search” feature that allows users to move between the dictionaries and reverse translation actions.

Evaluation. There are differences in quality of the dictionary hardware, software, and content. Some handhelds are more robustly constructed than others, and the keyboards or touch screen input systems should be physically compared before purchase. The major consideration is the quality of the lexical database. Dictionaries intended for collegiate and professional use generally include most or all of the lexical information to be expected in a quality printed dictionary. The content of electronic dictionaries developed in association with leading publishers of printed dictionaries is more reliable that those aimed at the traveler or casual user. Bilingual dictionaries, which have not been authored by teams of native speaker lexicographers, will not be suitable for academic work. Some developers opt to have their products evaluated by an independent academic body such as the CALICO.

Integrated technologies. Several developers of the systems that drive electronic dictionary software offer API – Application Programming Interface and SDK – Software Development Kit tools for adding various language-based functions (dictionary, translation, definitions, synonyms, spell checking and grammar correction) to programs, and web services. These applications manipulate language in various ways, providing dictionary/translation features, and sophisticated solutions for semantic search.

Ectaco, one of the most prosperous associations in this area, is a New York – based company that designs, manufactures and sells translation dictionaries and language software. Founded by Russian émigrés in 1990 to produce handheld electronic dictionaries, it opened its development center in St. Petersburg in 1998. Find more information at http://www.ectacoinc.com/ and http://www.ectaco.com/info/ , also See.

Ectaco produces dictionaries for 47 different languages, including a translator used by police forces in the United States.

Note. This is, first of all, a technical text for studying English and training technical English. At the same time the text encompasses up-to-date information on the topic.

Reference:

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Development of the modern IT has caused breakthrough in development and implementation of electronic dictionaries. Many well-known traditional companies have evolved an electronic version of their traditional dictionaries.

According to the Wikipedia an electronic dictionary is either a small handheld computer or a PDA (personal digital assistant). PDA is also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs commonly have colour screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones, web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi. Very often PDAs employ touch screen technology with a dictionary program. Electronic dictionaries are also programs that can be downloaded from the Internet or purchased on a CD-ROM or DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) and installed on a desktop computer or on a laptop one, The computer–installed dictionaries can frequently be consulted directly within any application that uses editable text. The term may be used in a broader sense to refer to the features of a machine-readable dictionary or spell checker.

Content. Some electronic dictionaries contain only corpora for a single language (monolingual), but others are bilingual dictionaries and translation dictionaries and may also include professional terms, thesauri, travel dictionaries, dictionaries of idioms and colloquialisms, a guide to pronunciation, a grammar reference, common phrases and collocations, and a dictionary of foreign loan words. Electronic dictionary databases, especially those included with software dictionaries, are usually extensive and can include up to 500,000 headwords and definitions. Manufacturers and developers of electronic dictionaries may offer native content from their own lexicographers, licensed data from print publications, or both.

Standard features. Handheld electronic dictionaries resemble miniature clamshell laptop computers, complete with full keyboards and LCD screens. Since they are intended to be fully portable, these dictionaries are battery-powered and made with durable casing material. Some of the features of both handheld dictionaries and software dictionaries involve stroke order animations, voice output, handwriting recognition, language-learning programs, a calculator, PDA–like organizer functions, encyclopedias, time zone and currency converters, and crossword puzzle solvers. Dictionaries that contain data for several languages customarily have a “jump” or “skip-search” feature that allows users to move between the dictionaries and reverse translation actions.

Evaluation. There are differences in quality of the dictionary hardware, software, and content. Some handhelds are more robustly constructed than others, and the keyboards or touch screen input systems should be physically compared before purchase. The major consideration is the quality of the lexical database. Dictionaries intended for collegiate and professional use generally include most or all of the lexical information to be expected in a quality printed dictionary. The content of electronic dictionaries developed in association with leading publishers of printed dictionaries is more reliable that those aimed at the traveler or casual user. Bilingual dictionaries, which have not been authored by teams of native speaker lexicographers, will not be suitable for academic work. Some developers opt to have their products evaluated by an independent academic body such as the CALICO.

Integrated technologies. Several developers of the systems that drive electronic dictionary software offer API – Application Programming Interface and SDK – Software Development Kit tools for adding various language-based functions (dictionary, translation, definitions, synonyms, spell checking and grammar correction) to programs, and web services. These applications manipulate language in various ways, providing dictionary/translation features, and sophisticated solutions for semantic search.

Ectaco, one of the most prosperous associations in this area, is a New York – based company that designs, manufactures and sells translation dictionaries and language software. Founded by Russian émigrés in 1990 to produce handheld electronic dictionaries, it opened its development center in St. Petersburg in 1998. Find more information at http://www.ectacoinc.com/ and http://www.ectaco.com/info/ , also See. Ectaco produces dictionaries for 47 different languages, including a translator used by police forces in the United States.

Note. This is, first of all, a technical text for studying English and training technical English. At the same time the text encompasses up-to-date information on the topic.

Is the „green“ energy really free?

I have been studying the comments (382 comments in total) to the post Renewable energy – our downfall? By Ralph Ellis. Most of comments are extremely absorbing. Below is one of these comments. It concerns the real price of renewables. I like very much the author´s proposal on how to show „green“ people that „green“ energy is not free, but on the contrary is very expensive. Consider yourselves. Galina Vitkova

Opravdu „zelená“ energie nic nestojí?	Действительно “зеленая“ энергия ничего не стоит?
Autor komentáře: chris y, viz Renewable energy – our downfall? , 25.5.09 (09:09:32),	Автор комментария: chris y, см. Renewable energy – our downfall?, 25.5.09 (09:09:32),
Lidi zřejmě mají zájem o ”zelenou“ energii a měli by mít možnosti jí zvolit i za cenu toho, že budou platit dvakrát tolik. Nejlepší způsob, jak ukázat zeleným, co stojí zelená energie, nechat je platit náklady za provoz zelených zdrojů.	Некоторые потребители очевидно предпочитают “зеленую“ энергию, и им следовало бы дать возможность потреблять ее и за цену того, что будут платить в 2 раза больше. Наилучший способ показать “зеленым“, сколько стоит “зеленая“ энергия – это обязать их оплачивать расходы на эксплуатацию “зеленых“ ресурсов.
V současné době se již začínají používat technologie měření spotřeby od jednotlivých zdrojů energie. Nové měřící elektronické přístroje AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure) mohou být instalovány všude u každého uživatele podle jeho přání. Tyto přístroje komunikují v obou směrech a poskytují dálkové měření množství energie spotřebované od různých zdrojů, zaznamenávají časové pořadí využití energie, vyúčtování za energii a dálkové připojení a odpojení zvoleného zdroje energie. EMS (Energy Management System) databázový software může být uspořádán mnoha různými způsoby odpovídajícími konkrétní situaci.	В настоящее время начинают использовать технологию измерений потребления от отдельных источников энергии. Новые измерительные приборы AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure) могут быть установлены везде, у каждого потребителя. Эти приборы работают в обоих направлениях и проводят дистанционные измерения количества электроэнергии, потребляемoй от отдельных источников энергии, регистрируют последовательность использования энергии, платежные операции, а также включают и выключают выбранный источник энергии. EMS (Energy Management System) софтвер базы данных может иметь самую различную конфигурацию, отвечающую конкретной ситуации.
Díky této technologie spotřebitel si může zvolit mezi konvenčním a obnovitelným zdrojem energie (solární nebo větrný). Pro Spojené království, například, to bude na 99% vítr. Náklady na využití elektrické energie jsou přímo závislé na zdroji. Skutečný cenový rozdíl bude v rozmezí 3 – 5krát vyšší v závislosti na místě bydlení spotřebitele. Takže eko-spotřebitel bude platit skutečnou cenu za eko-energii a rychle si uvědomí iluzornost představy, že eko-energie nestojí “nic”.	Благодаря данной технологии потребитель может выбрать классические или возобновляемые источники энергии (солнечную или ветряную). Например, в Великобритании это будет на 99% ветряная энергия. Расходы за использование электроэнергии напрямую зависят от типа источника. Реальная разница в цене будет лежать в интервале в 3 – 5 раз больше в зависимости от места пребывания потребителя. В результате эко-потребитель будет платить реальную цену за эко-энергию и очень быстро поймет иллюзорность мнения, что эко-энергия ничего не стоит.
Navíc uživatel, který si zvolí obnovitelnou energii, bude odpojován od celostátní elektrosítě pokaždé, kdy obnovitelný zdroj je mimo provoz. Ve Spojeném Království to může být 1 až 20krát denně zcela náhodně. Tyto akce lze snadno uskutečnit propojením EMS software a SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) software, který se v současné době běžně používá v elektrosíti (měří se obvykle každých 10 vteřin).	Более того, пользователь, который выберет возобновляемый источник энергии, будет отключаться от объединенной сети каждый раз, когда возобновляемый источник не будет работать. В Великобритании такое может случаться до 20 раз в день совершенно случайно. Эти операции можно осуществить, объединив EMS софтвер и SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) софтвер, который в настоящее время обычно используется в электросети (измерения проводятся каждые 10 сек.)
Tímto způsobem “zelení” poznají na vlastní kůži přednosti obnovitelných zdrojů. Budou platit skutečnou cenu a navíc budou neustale přepínáni. Samozřejmě I tyto spotřebitelé mají možnost se přepnout na spolehlivý klasický zdroj energii, tj. vrátit se k napájení od celostátní síti.	Таким образом ’’зеленые’’ убедятся на собственном опыте в достоинствах возобновляемых источников энергии. Будут платить настоящую цену и кроме того будут отключаться и включаться все время. Конечно же и эти потребители будут иметь возможность подключиться снова к надежному, классическому источнику электроэнергии, т.е. вернуться к снабжению от объединенной сети.
Bez pohyby, že jakmile v UK se podpoří iniciativa instalovat celostátní měřící síť s cílem snížení poptávky na energii, za několik let veškeré ceny obnovitelných zdrojů budou uvedeny do souladu s realitou.	Вне сомнения, как только начнут в Великобритании поддерживать создание общегосударственной измерительной сети с целью снижения спроса, все цены электроэнергии от возобновляемых источников придут в соответствие с реальностью.
Autor tohoto komentáře sám žiji ve sluneční Floridě. Ale i tam širší využití solární energie bude znamenat přibližně 3krátní zvýšení účtů za elektřinu. I na Floridě se usiluje o výstavbu 4 nových atomových reaktorů, ale někteří tamější obyvatelé jsou proti tomu.	Автор данного комментария живет в солнечной Флориде. И там внедрение широкого использования солнечной энергии приведет примерно к трехкратному повышению цен на электроэнергию. И на Флориде идет борьба за строительство 4 новых атомных реакторов, но не все с этим согласны.